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In high-profile colleges in the United States, such as the Ivy Leagues and Seven Daughters, naked photos were frequently taken between the 1940s and 1960s. ]1]]2]]3]]4 ] Purportedly taken to assess the posture and health of the students, Cranky Cash – BDSM the bulk of the photographs were produced by W. H. Sheldon, a psychologist and eugenicist who believed non-white races were intellectually stunted. [1 ] Francis Galton, the proponent of genetics, who suggested creating a photo library for the British people, gave him the idea to take large numbers of images for his research. According to a hypothesis developed by Sheldon, a human physique can be measured to determine a person's intelligence, temperament, crankycash and moral worth. ]1 ]

Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Brown, Vassar, Wellesley, Mount Holyoke, Swarthmore, University of Pennsylvania, Hotchkiss, Syracuse, University of California, University of Wisconsin, Purdue, Brooklyn College, the Oregon Hospital for the Criminally Insane, and others were just a few of the universities that had "posture photograph" plans. The centuries in which each establishment participated vary. Some colleges, such as Harvard and Wellesley, had their own practice of taking tone photographs properly before Sheldon's participation, as early as the 1880s. [1]]2]]4]]1]]2] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

After ending their posture photo practices, the schools in the 1960s and '70s voluntarily destroyed the majority of the photo archives. ]1]]5 ] After Sheldon's death in 1977, his personal archives-over 20, 000 photos and negatives-were acquired by the Smithsonian Institution's National Anthropological Archives. The Smithsonian completely sealed the documents and destroyed the Yale archives on request following a write-up in the New York Times Magazine in 1995. These were never displayed, and researchers could only access them after filing a petition with the chief archivist. ]6]]7 ]

Due to the scope of the project, it is possible that many famous people who attended these schools had their nude photos taken, despite the possibility that those photos have since been destroyed. Since they may have had their photos taken, Bush, Hillary Clinton, Meryl Streep, Diane Sawyer, and Bob Woodward were students at the time and place these programs took place. Journalists have noted that notable people such as George H. W.

Some posture photos, such as those of James Franciscus and Bill Hinnant from the 1960s and 1970s, were recently sold on eBay in the 2020s. [8]]9 ]

Some famous people have mentioned their experiences getting their posture photo taken, including Sylvia Plath, Nora Ephron, Dick Cavett and Judith Martin ( the etiquette expert known as Miss Manners ). [1]]5 ]]10]1]]5 ]]5 ]]1]]]5 ]]]1]] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

Background

US culture's posture

American culture's fixation on posture started in the mid-18th century, when it was seen as a reflection of character, particularly for men. In the 1800s, posture became a part of etiquette ( for both men and women ), helped by stiff clothing like corsets and greatcoats. It also developed a moral component, helping to distinguish upper classes from the" slouched and tired" working class and separating them from earlier aristocrats, who were "languid and morally loose." [11]]12]]13]]11]]12]]12]]13] ]]11]]12]]13] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

By the end of the 19th century, posture had become a medical issue as social norms ( and clothing ) changed. According to some," good posture" is necessary for maintaining good health, and slouching is said to cause various ailments. There was a particular focus on children, and posture was a frequent subject of parenting manuals. Half of children were identified as having "abnormal" spinal curvatures in 1890. [11]]12]]13]]11]]12]]12]]13] ]]11]]12]]13] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

Late 1800s posture photos

Some schools began photographing their students and taking various measurements ( many of which were not related to posture ), concerned about the poor posture of the youth. Participation was typically required for the students. Harvard's program started in the 1880s, as did some women's colleges.

Although the exact methods varied from school to school, photo stations were typically set up in a gymnasium where students were summoned within the first week of the school year. Each student would remove their clothes, pose on a platform, and be taken for multiple photos. ]1]]4]]5 ] At first the photos were generally waist-up, and some schools took steps to hide the identity of the subject, such as covering the head with a handkerchief.

Additional information was also collected. For instance, officials at Vassar ( which was a women's college at the time ) measured the student's waist, chest, hips, knees, calves, ankles, elbows, wrists, head circumference, lung capacity, whether she had ever exercised, her birthplace, her father's job, the nationality of her parents and grandparents, and her "temperament." ]5 ]

The student at Wellesley had to take a "remedial" course in posture if they received anything lower than an A. After that, they were rephotographed and graded. The majority of Wellesley students ( freshmen and above ) received B or C grades.

In all Massachusetts schools that took posture pictures, it was reported in 1889 that female students were photographed and measured 50 times more frequently than male students whose postures were deemed to be far superior. [5]]14]]5 ]] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

Early 20th century posture photos

With the establishment of the American Posture League, contests like" Miss Perfect Posture," and college campuses with "posture police" that tagged students who were not walking or standing straight, posture became even more important in American culture in the early 1900s. [11]]12] College posture photo practices grew, and by 1925 most schools had adopted full-body nudes, as suggested by the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, which later became Wellesley's Dept. of Physical Education. In this environment, it was typical for public primary schools to conduct postural correction programs.

Wellesley was instrumental in the development and expansion of posture photo programs. ]5 ] In the 1930s, Wellesley started using "posture pointers\ Over time, Sheldon's theories became more discredited, and eugenics overall became disfavored due to its association with Nazism. Schools ended their posture photo programs and burned their archives, mostly during the 1960s and 70s.[1][4][5] Sheldon failed to compile enough for photographs for his "Atlas of Women".

Stolen/missing photos

Urban myths about stolen posture photos were common on campuses in the '60s. The photos were said to be available on the "Ivy League black market", or only shown to members of campus secret societies. [1][4] In 2004, a high-embellished article about stealing the Vassar posture photos appeared on the Yale Alumni website, written by a 1959 graduate C. Davis Fogg. He describes hiring a mafia safe-cracker to help steal Vassar's archive, seeing the nudes of Roosevelt and Rockefeller girls, then selling the photos to male students to help them find dates, and eventually making $250,000 after expenses ("enough to buy 200 new Volkswagens"). [3][5] The article has since been removed from the Yale website.

Impact on the subjects

In later interviews, many women who had been posture photo subjects expressed profound embarrassment and pain over the experience, and even guilt about not objecting. [5] Writer and filmmaker Nora Ephron (Wellesley '62) said, "We were idiots. Idiots!"[1] Author Sylvia Plath wrote to her mother about the experience, where she strained to stand in the idealized "feminine" posture in front of the camera, and yet was graded as inadequate by the male administrators. [5] This was fictionalized in her bestselling novel, The Bell Jar, where it is one of many experiences that push the main character toward mental illness.

After photographing the female freshmen at Denison University, Sheldon requested a reshoot due to a technical error. He was denied, because "to require them to pose for another [nude posture photo] would create insurmountable psychological problems."

Journalist Ron Rosenbaum, who looked through thousands of Sheldon's photos, remarked how the expressions of the female subjects were noticeably more distressed than the males. "I was surprised at how many looked deeply unhappy, as if pained at being subjected to this procedure. On the faces of quite a few I saw what looked like grimaces, reflecting pronounced discomfort, perhaps even anger."[1]

Professor Kris Belden-Adams points out how the practice magnified gendered power dynamics:

The taking of posture pictures-50 times more often than pictures were made of their male counterparts-rendered these female subjects visible, vulnerably nude, and robbed of bodily agency. They were the objects of a photographer's gaze, and also for the viewing of Physical Education teachers, college administrators, the college's state bureaucracy, and the ERO [Eugenics Record Office]-all of which were dominantly male enterprises from the 1880s until the 1940s.[5]

Cavett/Wolf exchange

During his 1984 commencement speech at Yale, comedian Dick Cavett remarked that there were no female students when he attended Yale in the 1950s. Instead, the women went to Vassar, and Cavett mocked their looks, saying that the stolen Vassar posture photos could find no buyers, even on the black market.

Author Naomi Wolf, who was in the audience graduating that day, was horrified by the statement. She wrote about the joke in her book "The Beauty Myth" and in a 1992 Op-Ed piece in the New York Times. Wolf said, "Consciously or not, Mr. Cavett was using the beauty myth aspect of the backlash: when women come too close to masculine power, someone will draw critical attention to their bodies."[19]

Cavett retorted with his own Op-Ed, saying his line was just a joke and Wolf should learn how to use humor. This exchange inspired journalist Ron Rosenbaum to investigate the posture photo program and its ties to the American eugenics movement. Sheldon's photo archives in the Smithsonian Institution. Rosenbaum eventually located W.H. [6][7] [1] His write-up in the New York Times Magazine caused the Smithsonian to destroy much of their archives, and permanently seal the rest.

Ties to eugenics

From the 1880s-1940s, eugenics was considered a settled science in the US. [5] While it was ostensibly about improving genetic quality for all humans, it tended to preserve the position of the dominant groups in the population. Many colleges at the time, even those without posture photo programs, recorded data of their students' body measurements, personalities, and heredity. This data was regularly sent to the Eugenics Record Office, which promoted the idea of race betterment. [5]

The Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, which provided many New England schools with physical education courses before they developed their own departments (and pushed for posture photos to be full-body nudes), was well-connected to the eugenics movement. [5] [5] For example, the Normal School featured lectures by the dean of Harvard Medical School, Henry Pickering Bowditch, who advocated for eugenics and published findings from eugenics conferences. In Massachusetts, collecting the biometric data of college students from across the state was coordinated by Boston-based eugenicists, including Bowditch.

W.H. Sheldon was also a eugenicist who believed in the superiority of the white race. His studies asserted that the intelligence of African Americans came to a "standstill at about the 10th year," and Mexicans at about age 12.[1] According to Yale professor George Hersey:

The reigning school of the time, presided over by E. A. Hooton of Harvard and W. H. Sheldon of Yale, held that a person's body, measured and analyzed, could tell much about intelligence, temperament, moral worth and probable future achievement.[16]

Hooton was more outspoken about dividing humanity into races, and made proposals to "control and limit the production of inferior and useless organisms." His suggestions included penalizing the "inferior" if they reproduced, or sterilizing them altogether.[1]

Hersey also stated that: "From the outset, the purpose of these 'posture photographs' was eugenic."[1] Photographs provided tangible visual proof of the ideals of both "positive eugenics" (desired traits) and of "negative eugenics" (undesired traits). People possessing "positive eugenics" characteristics were encouraged to breed, while those possessing "negative eugenics" qualities were encouraged to abstain from breeding for the "good" of humanity.[5] As Hersey put it, the ideal solution was "getting those Exeter and Harvard men together with their corresponding Wellesley, Vassar and Radcliffe girls."[1]

Hersey also points out:

The Nazis compiled similar archives analyzing the photos for racial as well as characterological content (as did Hooton). Thus, from nose shape, forehead height and distance between lower lip and chin, a subject might be identified as 30 percent Mediterranean and 40 percent Danubian. The Nazis often used American high school yearbook photographs for this purpose."[16]

After World War II, eugenics became associated with Nazism, and it fell out of favor in American culture, as did posture photo programs, and mass biometric tracking in general.[1][5]

See also

Nudity portal


Somatotype and constitutional psychology
Eugenics in the United States

References

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Rosenbaum, Ron (January 15, 1995). "The Great Ivy League Nude Posture Photo Scandal". The New York Times. ^ Sheldon, William Herbert (1970). Atlas of Men: a guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages. New York Times Opinionator. MEL Magazine.
^ Bowditch, Henry Pickering (1889). The Physique of Women in Massachusetts. Medium.com.
^ a b c Yosifon, David; Stearns, Peter N. (1998). "The Rise and Fall of American Posture". ISSN 2108-6559.
^ a b Rosenbaum, Ron (January 21, 1995). "Nude Photos Are Sealed At Smithsonian". ^ a b Letendre, Andrew (June 25, 2015). "The naked truth about Yale's posture program". The New York Times. Co.
^ Nevala-Lee, Alec (October 11, 2018). "Under the Dome". Darien, Conn. : Hafner Pub. 103 (4): 1057-1095. doi:10.2307/2651198. Yale Class of 1959. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017.
^ a b c d e f g h "Posture and Photographs". Vassar Encyclopedia.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Belden-Adams, Kris (April 20, 2022). "'We Did What We Were Told': The 'Compulsory Visibility' and De-Empowerment of US College Women in Nude 'Posture Pictures,' 1880-1940". Miranda (25). doi:10.4000/miranda.44430. The New York Times. The American Historical Review. The New York Times. ^ a b c d Jesson, Tom (June 8, 2020). "Upright and uptight: the invention of posture". Brian Ferrari's Blog.
^ Cavett, Dick (November 12, 2011). "Up Against the Wall". ISSN 0002-8762.
^ a b Bourn, Chris (February 13, 2019). "Is There Really Any Such Thing as 'Good' Posture?". Yale Alumni Magazine.
^ a b Fogg, C. Davis. "The Posture Pictures". The New York Times. Department of Health, Boston. Brian Ferrari's Blog.
^ Ferrari, Brian (April 23, 2023). "The Yale Posture Photos: Bill Hinnant". Alec Nevala-Lee.
^ Wolf, Naomi (May 31, 1992). "A Woman's Place". ^ "Boston Normal School of Gymnastics (later became the Dept. of Hygiene and Physical Education at Wellesley College), 1891-1906 - Archival Collections at Stanford". Stanford University.
^ a b c Hersey, George L. (July 3, 1992). "A Secret Lies Hidden in Vassar and Yale Nude 'Posture Photos'". ^ a b Rosenbaum, Ron (January 29, 1995). "Nude Photos of Yale Graduates Are Shredded". ^ Ferrari, Brian (May 18, 2021). "The Yale Posture Photos: James Franciscus".